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An Exploration of the Elizabethan Age LANGUAGE CONTRIBUTIONS

DIRECTORY OF WORD LISTS
Golden Age of Elizabethan English
Golden Era Lexicon | Golden Era Alphabet
Shakespearean Lexicon |His Writing Devices
Words | Word Fails | Expressions | Idioms
Narrative of a Logophile Bardolatry
bardolatry refers to Shakespearean mania
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THE BARD’S WRITING DEVICES

RELATED WORD LISTS
Literary Devices - For Writing
​Rhetorical Devices - For Communication
Poetic Devices - For Poetry & Verse
Shakespeare’s plays, especially his histories, are full of high rhetoric. The most famous example is probably Marc Antony’s funeral oration from Julius Caesar. In the speech, Marc Antony faces a hostile crowd, most of whom are celebrating Caesar’s death. But, through careful rhetoric, Marc Antony convinces them that they should not be too quick to celebrate, and that Caesar may not have been such a bad man after all. The speech is a brilliant synthesis of pathos and logos, since it appeals both to the audience’s logical minds and to their emotional hearts.

THE PRIMARY DEVICES


AMPLIFICATION
Amplification involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail, to emphasise what might otherwise be passed over. This allows one to call attention to and expand a point to ensure the audience realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion.

But this revolting boy, of course,
Was so unutterably vile,
So greedy, foul, and infantile
He left a most disgusting taste
Inside our mouths…
(Roald Dahl, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory)

ANTANAGOGE
Antanagoge involves ‘placing a good point or benefit next to faulty criticism or problem in order to reduce the impact or significance of the negative point’.

Within the infant rind of this weak flower
Poison hath residence, and medicine power.
(Romeo and Juliet)

One scenario involves a situation when one is unable to respond to a negative point and chooses instead to introduce another point to reduce the accusation's significance.

We may be managing the situation poorly, but so did you at first.

Antanagoge can also be used to positively interpret a negative situation:

When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.

APOPHASIS
Apophasis is the tactic of bringing up a subject by denying that it should be brought up. It is also known as paralipsis, occupatio, praeteritio, preterition, or parasiopesis.

There's something tells me, but it is not love,
I would not lose you; and you know yourself,
Hate counsels not in such a quality.
(Merchant of Venice)

APORIA
Aporia is the rhetorical expression of doubt.
When the rhetorical question posed is answered, this is also an instance of hypophora.

To be or not to be, that is the question. (Hamlet)

DIASYRMUS
Rejecting an argument through ridiculous comparison.

DERISION
This involves setting up an opposing position to ridicule without offering a counterargument, such as:

You believe we should vote for him? I’ve got a bridge to sell you.

No reason for why one should not vote for him is given. It is merely implied that it would be gullible to do so.

HYPERBOLE
Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. This can be for literary effect:

The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars,
As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven
Would through the airy region stream so bright
That birds would sing and think it were not night
(Romeo and Juliet)

His face was as the heavens...
His legs bestrid the ocean: his rear'd arm
Crested the world... realms and islands were
As plates dropp'd from his pocket.
(Antony & Cleopatra)

Or for argumentative effect:

Her election would be the worst thing to ever happen to this country!

INNUENDO
This device indirectly implies an accusation without explicitly stating it. This can be combined with apophasis.

Yea,' quoth he, 'dost thou fall upon thy face?
Thou wilt fall backward when thou hast more wit;
Wilt thou not, Jule?' and, by my holidame,
The pretty wretch left crying and said 'Ay.'
(Romeo and Juliet)

METANOIA
Metanoia qualifies a statement by recalling or rejecting it in part or full, and then re-expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way. A negative is often used to do the recalling.

All faults that may be named, nay, that hell knows…
(Cymbeline)

PLEONASM
Pleonasm involves using more words than necessary to describe an idea. This creates emphasis and can introduce additional elements of meaning.

I should have found in some place of my soul
A drop of patience.
(Othello)

Swerve not from the smallest article of it, neither in time, matter or other circumstance.
(Measure for Measure)

PROCATALEPSIS
By anticipating and answering a possible objection, procatalepsis allows an argument to continue while rebutting points opposing it. It is a relative of hypophora. Procatalepsis can be used strategically to show that concerns have been thought through.

‘All right!’ you’ll cry. ‘All right!’ you’ll say,
‘But if we take the set away,
What shall we do to entertain
Our darling children? Please explain!’
We’ll answer this by asking you,
‘What used the darling ones to do?
How used they keep themselves contented
Before this monster was invented?’
(Roald Dahl, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory)

SYLLOGISM
A syllogism is a logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. Syllogism which omits either one of the premises or the conclusion. The omitted part must be clearly understood by the audience. Sometimes this depends on contextual knowledge.

Mark’d ye his words? He would not take the crown;
Therefore ‘tis certain he was not ambitious. (Julius Caesar; the premise implied is that no ambitious person would refuse the crown)

UNDERSTATEMENT
Understatement, or meiosis, involves deliberately understating the importance, significance or magnitude of a subject. This means the force of the description is less than what is expected, thus highlighting the irony or extreme nature of an event.

BENVOLIO: What, art thou hurt?
MERCUTIO: Ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch. (Romeo and Juliet; Mercutio dies of his wounds after.)

A subtype of understatement is litotes, which uses negation:

Heatwaves are not rare in the summer.
ANTITHESIS
Antithesis involves putting together two opposite ideas in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Contrast is emphasised by parallel but similar structures of the opposing phrases or clauses to draw the listeners’ or readers’ attention. Compared to chiasmus, the ideas must be opposites.

Scarce any joy
Did ever so long live; no sorrow
But killed itself much sooner.
(Winter's Tale)

ANTIMETABOLE
Antimetabole involves repeating but reversing the order of words, phrases or clauses. The exact same words are repeated, as opposed to antithesis or chiasmus.

Suit the action to the word, the word to the action.
(Hamlet)

The setting sun, and music at the close,
As the last taste of sweets, is sweetest last. (Richard II)

CHIASMUS
Chiasmus involves parallel clause structure but in reverse order for the second part. This means that words or elements are repeated in the reverse order. The ideas thus contrasted are often related but not necessarily opposite.

But O, what damned minutes tells he o’er
Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves!
(Othello)

ASYNDETON
Asyndeton is the removal of conjunctions like “or,” “and,” or “but” from your writing where it might have been expected because the sentence flows better, or more poetically, without them.

I might in virtue, beauties, livings, friends, exceed account…
(Merchant of Venice)

Accursed, unhappy, wretched, hateful day!
(Romeo and Juliet)

POLYSYNDETON
Polysyndeton is the use of more conjunctions than strictly needed. This device is often combined with anaphora.

We'll live,
And pray, and sing, and tell old tales, and laugh
At gilded butterflies, and hear poor rogues
Talk of court news...
(King Lear)

AUXESIS
Auxesis is arranging words in a list from least to most significant. This can create climax. Catacosmesis involves arranging words from most to least significant. It is the opposite of catacosmesis.

Auxesis Example
Today, today, unhappy day too late,
O'erthrows thy joys, friends, fortune, and thy state
(Richard II)

Catacosmesis Example
Nor brass, nor stone, nor parchment bears not one.
(Winter's Tale)

OXYMORON
An oxymoron is a 2-word paradox often achieved through the deliberate use of antonyms. This creates an internal contradiction that can have rhetorical effect.

His humble ambition, proud humility;
His jarring concord, and his discord dulcet;
His faith, his sweet disaster.
(All's Well That Ends Well)

ZEUGMA
Zeugma involves the linking of two or more words or phrases that occupy the same position in a sentence to another word or phrase in the same sentence. This can take advantage of the latter word having multiple meanings depending on context to create a clever use of language that can make the sentence and the claim thus advanced more eloquent and persuasive.

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
(Julius Caesar)

CAN YOU REPEAT THAT?

ANAPHORA
Anaphora is repeating the same word(s) at the beginning of successive sentences, phrases or clauses.

With mine own tears I wash away my balm,
With mine own hands I give away my crown,
With mine own tongue deny my sacred state,
With mine own breath release all duty's rites. (Richard 2)

ANTANACLASIS
Antanaclasis is more witty, repeating the same word but in a different sense. This can take advantage of polysemy.

Put out the light, and then put out the light. (Othello, first referring to extinguishing the candle, then referring to killing Desdemona.)

ANADIPLOSIS
Anadiplosis involves repeating the last word(s) of one sentence, phrase or clause at or near the beginning of the next.

To die, to sleep;
To sleep, perchance to dream…
(Hamlet)

CONDUPLICATIO
Conduplicatio is similar to anadiplosis, involving repeating a keyword in subsequent clauses.

Thou quiet soul, sleep thou a quiet sleep!
(Richard III)

DIACOPE
Diacope is the repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or clause. It can also be thought of as a reshaped epanalepsis.

Farewell, my dearest sister, fare thee well:
The elements be kind to thee, and make
Thy spirits all of comfort! fare thee well. (Antony and Cleopatra)

EPANALEPSIS
Epanalepsis repeats the same word(s) at the beginning and end.

Nothing will come of nothing.
(King Lear)

EPISTROPHE
Epistrophe is repeating the same word(s) at the end instead.

If you had known the virtue of the ring,
Or half her worthiness that gave the ring,
Or your own honour to contain the ring,
You would not then have parted with the ring. (Merchant of Venice)

EPIZEUXIS
Epizeuxis is repetition of the same word without interruption.

Words, words, words. (Hamlet 2.2)
O horror! Horror! Horror!
(Macbeth)

SYMPLOCE
Symploce is a simultaneous combination of both anaphora and epistrophe, but repeating different words at the start and end.

That Angelo's forsworn; is it not strange?
That Angelo's a murderer; is't not strange?
That Angelo is an adulterous thief,
An hypocrite, a virgin-violator;
Is it not strange and strange?
(Measure for Measure)

WAXING CREATIVITY

ALLITERATION
Alliteration is the repetition of the sound of an initial consonant or consonant cluster in subsequent syllables. It is one of the most well-known and effective rhetorical devices throughout literature and persuasive speeches.

From forth the fatal loins of these two foes,
A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life. (Romeo and Juliet Prologue)

Small showers last long but sudden storms are short.
(Richard II)

ASSONANCE
Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds across neighbouring words.

Blow wind, swell billow and swim bark!
(Julius Caesar)

CONSONANCE
Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds across words which have been deliberately chosen. It is different from alliteration as it can happen at any place in the word, not just the beginning.

In the following example, the K sound is repeated five times.

...with streaks of light,
And flecked darkness like a drunkard reels... (Romeo and Juliet)

CACOPHONY
Cacophony refers to the use of unpleasant sounds, such as the explosive consonants k, g, t, d, p and b, the hissing sounds sh and s, and also the affricates ch and j, in rapid succession in a line or passage, creating a harsh and discordant effect.

Hear the loud alarum bells–
Brazen bells! What tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells!
In the startled ear of night
How they scream out their affright!
Too much horrified to speak,
They can only shriek, shriek…
(Edgar Allan Poe, "The Bells")

ONOMATOPOEIA
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that attempt to emulate a sound. It is often accompanied by multiple exclamation marks and in all caps. It is common in comic strips and some cartoons.

Some examples include these: smek, thwap, kaboom, ding-dong, plop, bang and pew.

POSING THE QUESTION

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
These questions produce an effect or make a statement, rather than to evoke an answer or information. It is asked when the questioner already knows the answer or an answer is not really required. In many cases it may be intended to start a discourse, or as a means of displaying or to emphasize the speaker's opinion on a topic.

Also known as erotesis, erotema, interrogatio, questioner, and reversed polarity question (RPQ).

  • They may also be used for dramatic or comedic effect, and may be combined with other figures of speech, such as puns or double entendres.
  • These questions provoke deep thoughts, sometimes impose sarcastic reasoning, and are often used as a tool during debates to avoid obtaining an immediate declaration.
  • By arousing curiosity, rhetorical questions motivate people to try to answer the question that is posed. Consequently, people pay closer attention to information relevant to the rhetorical question.

QUESTION EXAMPLES

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
(Romeo & Juliet)

Mighty Caesar! dost thou lie so low?
Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
Shrunk to this little measure?
(Julius Caesar)

If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?
(The Merchant of Venice)

​HYPOPHORA
The use of hypophora is the technique whereby one asks a question and then proceeds to answer the question. This device is one of the most useful strategies in writing essays to inform or persuade a reader.

Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honour hath no skill in surgery, then? No. What is honour? A word. What is in that word honour? What is that honour? Air. A trim reckoning! Who hath it? He that died a' Wednesday. Doth he feel it? No. Doth he hear it? No. 'Tis insensible, then? Yea, to the dead. But will it not live with the living? No. Why? Detraction will not suffer it.
(Henry IV)

EROTESIS
Erotesis, a rhetorical question implying strong affirmation or denial. It implies an answer but does not give or lead us to expect one, as when Laertes rants about Ophelia's madness:

'Do you see this, O God?' (Hamlet)

Erotesis in Greek depicts an act of “questioning.”

​FAST FACT
During the 1580s English printer Henry Denham invented the ‘rhetorical question mark’ (؟) to be used at the end of a rhetorical question. The usage of this sardonic punctuation mark faded during the 17th century.

IMAGINE THE DRAMATICS

One of the most commonly cited examples of dramatic imagery or an illusion is a metaphor. Metaphor connects two different things to one another. It is frequently invoked by the verb. The use of metaphor is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning.

The most famous metaphor in English literature comes from the "All the World's a Stage" monologue:

All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances
(As You Like It)

This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage, and most people are not literally actors and actresses playing roles. By asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the behavior of the people within it.

In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun (the vehicle), and this metaphor connecting Juliet to the sun shows that Romeo sees Juliet as being radiant and regards her as an essential being (the tenor).

But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?
It is the East, and Juliet is the sun.
(Romeo and Juliet)

USE OF IRONY
Irony is the figure of speech where the words of a speaker intends to express a meaning that is directly opposite of the said words.

Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest -
For Brutus is an honourable man;
So are they all, all honourable men -
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
(Julius Caesar, Antony attacks Brutus's character and that of his co-conspirators)

METONYMY
Metonymy is a figure of speech where a thing or concept is referred to indirectly by the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant
For example, the word "crown" is used to denote a king or queen.

OXYMORON
An oxymoron is a 2-word paradox often achieved through the deliberate use of antonyms. This creates an internal contradiction that can have rhetorical effect. The word "oxymoron" is itself an oxymoron. It comes from the Greek words oskús, meaning sharp or keen, and morōs meaning dull or foolish.

A true oxymoron occurs when Juliet says to Romeo in Romeo and Juliet:

Parting is such sweet sorrow.

Shakespeare has created this contradiction to capture the deeper truth of the simultaneous pain and joy of departing from a loved one—he's trying to communicate that being separated from your beloved is painful and yet, precisely because it's painful, parting reminds you of your
love and joy.

PERSONIFICATION
Personification is the representation of animals, inanimate objects and ideas as having human attributes.

Alas that love, whose view is muffled still,
Should without eyes see pathways to his will! (Romeo personifies love as being blind yet able to enamour someone)

SIMILE
Simile compares two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. It uses the as… as construction as compared to metaphor which is direct equivalence.

I’ll warrant him, as gentle as a lamb.
(The nurse compares Romeo's manners and behavior to a lamb)

SYNECDOCHE
A synecdoche is a class of metonymy, often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole or conversely the whole for one of its parts.
For example, "suits" (for "businessmen"), "boots" (for "soldiers"), "America" (for "the United States of America”).

See Factoring in the Figure of Speech
DIRECTORY OF WORD LISTS
Golden Age of Elizabethan English
Golden Era Lexicon | Golden Era Alphabet
Shakespearean Lexicon |His Writing Devices
Words | Word Fails | Expressions | Idioms
Narrative of a Logophile Bardolatry
bardolatry refers to Shakespearean mania
RELATED POSTS
The Humor of a Shakespearean Insult
Shakespearean Translation of Star Trek ?